10 Legendary and Mysterious Libraries of the Ancient World

It is often said that knowledge is wealth and in the ancient world it is something that is well guarded more than gold or jewels. The colossal libraries ancient civilizations like the Greeks and the Egyptians built are testaments to the fact that all the riches of the world will always pale in comparison with knowledge and learning.

These days, when information comes to us lightning-quick at the touch of a button, we tend to underestimate and undervalue the privilege we have of unfettered access to almost anything that we want to know and learn. It is a little bit tragic that the sense of appreciation that we have for information and learning is eclipsed by our continuously shortening attention spans because of all the media we consume on a daily basis.

In today’s list, we take a step back thousands of years to days when information and knowledge are stored and jealously guarded in giant libraries that are often the first monuments to be destroyed and sacked in times of war or invasion. Libraries that have shaped the world we now know of and the civilizations that have walked the earth, each contributing to humanity’s progress.

So here are 10 legendary and mysterious libraries of the ancient world!

Number Ten: The House of Wisdom

Called by historians as the Cradle of Civilization, ancient Mesopotamia – now modern day Iraq – was once one of the world’s centers for learning. Alongside Greece, Egypt, and Rome, Mesopotamia had one of the largest institutions of learning built in the 9 AD at the heart of the city of Baghdad.

Known as The House of Wisdom, it was built during the reign of the Abbasids. The House of Wisdom’s “collections” revolved around literature from Persia, Greece, and India. Also, among the library’s collection are manuscripts on mathematics, philosophy, science, medicine, and astronomy.

The books alone were enough to serve as lures to scholars from neighboring regions in the Middle East and among them are the mathematician and one of the fathers of Algebra, al-Khawarizmi; and the philosopher al-Kindi.

The House of Wisdom was the epicentre of Islamic intellectualism and academia for hundreds of years until it was sacked by the Mongols in 1258, tossing many of its extremely valuable manuscripts and books into the Tigris. Legend even has it that the famed river turned black due to ink dissolving into its waters.

Number Nine: The Twin Libraries at Trajan’s Forum

The ancient Romans are no strangers to accumulating codices and scrolls filled with anything from mathematics to philosophy. Knowledge and information are cornerstones of their empire that lasted centuries.

A Roman emperor’s love of monuments has helped erect one – or two – of the ancient world’s largest libraries.

Around 112 AD Emperor Trajan completed the construction of a wide, multi-use complex at the heart of Rome. Within the bounds of this Forum are plazas, markets, and temples. However, its crown jewel is one of the Roman Empire’s famous libraries.

Split in two, the twin structures housed numerous works and texts in Latin and Greek – separately housed – and were built on opposite sides of Trajan’s column, a massive monument to celebrate the emperor’s military victories.  Containing a collection of about 20,000 scrolls in rooms made of elegantly crafted marble and granite, historians are still debating when the twin libraries ceased to exist. With only texts referencing them until the fifth century AD, experts can only assume that it stood for at least three centuries.

Number Eight: Villa of the Papyri

One of the last ancient libraries to have survived well into the modern day, the Villa of the Papyri has withstood catastrophes including the devastating eruption of Mt Vesuvius in 79 AD.

Located in Herculaneum, Italy, the ruins of the Villa was buried deep in the ashes of Vesuvius that miraculously kept at least 1,785 of its scrolls preserved when the library was unearthed by archaeologists in 1752.

Technically the Villa was a house and not a library by any definition. Supposedly owned by Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesonius, Julius Caesar’s father-in-law, the massive home – aside from its impressive private library of texts on philosophy – boasted a collection of bronze sculptures and the most stylish and impressive architecture of that century.

Number Seven: The Library of Pergamum

Constructed by the Attalid Dynasty in the third century BC in what is now the country of Turkey, the Library of Pergamum was home to an impressive collection of 200,000 scrolls on varying subjects.

Located within a temple complex devoted to the Greek goddess Athena, the Library was considered to have become the “competition” of the Library of Alexandria according to the ancient chronicler, Pliny the Elder.

Apparently, both libraries sought to amass large collections of texts as well as establish rival schools of thought.

The rivalry between the two libraries allegedly reached fever pitch that Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt halted the exportation of papyrus to Pergamum hoping that it would cripple the library. Unfortunately, things did not go according to plan and only turned the city of Pergamum as one of the leading producers of parchment paper.

Number Six: Nalanda University

Moving further south of Asia, the Nalanda University in Bahir, India, is considered to be oldest university in the entire world as the first European university only popped up in 1088, a whole six centuries later.

What is even more exceptional about Nalanda is that the university provided education to thousands of students all across Asia.

Its nine-storey library was nicknamed “Dharmaganja” or Treasury of Truth and “Dharma Gunj” or Mountain of Truth because it was highly praised for the largest collection of Buddhist texts among other writings and literature. Helping spread philosophy and the Buddhist faith, Nalanda has nurtured thousands of followers until it was destroyed by Turk invaders in 1193. Due to the university’s immense size, legend tells that it took the Turks months before they could completely reduce its foundations to rubble.

Number Five: The Theological Library of Caesarea Maritima

Before it was destroyed around 638 AD by invading Arabs, the Theological Library of Caesarea Maritima or simply the Library of Caesarea, had the largest collection of ecclesiastical and theological texts of the Ancient Christian and Jewish world.

As the center of Christian education and scholarship, the library was also home to a large collection of literature from Greece and other neighboring regions. Mostly the texts are primarily historical and philosophical but nonetheless valuable as the place was frequently visited by important historical personalities such as Basil the Great and Gregory of Nazareth.

The church father Origen was mainly responsible for the library’s inventory of 30,000 manuscripts but during the purge initiated by Emperor Diocletian, the library and many of its contents were destroyed. Afterwards, it was rebuilt by the bishops of Caesarea only to be completely torn down, brick by brick, by Arab invaders.

Unfortunately, not a single manuscript from the library’s collection survived.

Number Four: The Library of Aristotle

Built in the first century BC, the library of Aristotle was part of a larger structure called the Lyceum where he was sought by many of his students and spent time learning from one of history’s most influential philosophers.

300 years after Aristotle’s death, a geographer named Strabo chronicled one of the most detailed accounts of the philosopher’s magnificent collection in his Geographia XIII, 1, 54-55, saying that Aristotle was “the first man, so far as I know, to have collected books and to have taught the kings in Egypt hwo to arrage a library.”

Upon Aristotle’s death, the Lyceum was bequeathed to Theoprastus. Even before his death, Aristotle heard of the jealousy of the Attalid empire of his library and desired to covet it for the Library of Pergamum. When Aristotle died and the Lyceum passed on to a new owner, it was then decided that the library’s entire collection be hidden and kept safe underground.

Unfortunately, despite this noble effort, many of the books were damaged by moisture and the remainder of the collection were sold to a man named Apellicon of Teos.

Number Three: The Imperial Library of Constantinople

Most of the history of the Imperial Library of Constantinople is shrouded in mystery. Many would point out that it was built out of necessity to preserve texts that were already in danger because of deterioration.

It was in 357 AD when Byzantine Emperor Constantius II decided to build the imperial library where many of the deteriorating Judeo-Christian scriptures could be copied onto vellum, a material that lasts longer than papyrus. Although Constantius II was only mostly interested in religious texts, the Imperial Library still managed to salvage many other books and scrolls that housed the knowledge of the Greeks and Romans.

In fact, many of the surviving texts from the ancient Grecian world that survives today were copies from the original manuscripts of the Imperial Library of Constantinople.

Number Two: The Library of Alexandria

Built by Ptolemy I in 295 BC, the Great Library of Alexandria holds a prestigious title in history as a “Universal” library where scholars from all over the world would visit, share ideas, and study from over thousands of texts that it offers.

It was, in fact, the intellectual crown jewel of the ancient world. Texts and scriptures on subjects like history, law, science, and mathematics can be browsed among its collection of 500,000 scrolls.

Many visiting scholars that decided to remain and live in the library complex received stipends from the Egyptian government just for conducting their studies and copying texts. Among its visitors were Euclid and Archimedes.

Its demise is still a question that seeks answers. Supposedly, the library burned down in 48 BC when Julius Caesar set fire to Alexandria’s harbor when he was at war with Ptolemy XIII. However, many historians believe that a blaze could not have easily destroyed the library and it may have still survived for a few more centuries. Some scholars, on the other hand, argue that the library met its end during the reign of Roman emperor Aurelian in 270 AD while other experts place its obliteration somewhere around the Fourth Century AD.

Whatever the case and however it fell, the Library of Alexandria remains to be one of history’s greatest achievements both architecturally and academically.

Number One: The Library of Ashurbanipal

Known as the world’s oldest library, it was built and founded for the “royal contemplation” of the Assyrian ruler Ashurbanipal in the 7th Century. Basically, it was one massive private study.

Constructed in Nineveh in modern-day Iraq, the library had a collection of around 30,000 stone tablets written in cuneiform. What’s even more impressive is that the tablets were organized according to subject matter. Most of them being archival documents of the royal court, the collection also included a number of literary works including the 4000-year old Epic of Gilgamesh.

Ashurbanipal was a known book-lover and obtained many of them through looting from conquered territories including Babylonia.

Today, most of the surviving tablets are housed and cared for in the British Museum in London.

While the Library of Ashurbanipal may not be as glamorous as the Library of Alexandria, it is most interesting to note that his collection helped pave the way to the history of the written word through cuneiform.

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Sources:

http://www.history.com/news/history-lists/8-impressive-ancient-libraries
http://www.onlinecollege.org/2011/05/30/11-most-impressive-libraries-from-the-ancient-world/
http://www.messagetoeagle.com/10-magnificent-ancient-libraries-filled-with-knowledge/
http://listverse.com/2016/12/09/10-mysterious-libraries/

15 Things Americans Do that Confuse the Rest of the World

Don’t you sometimes find it confusing when people ask how you are the moment you walk into a shop? Have you ever found yourself in an argument with a friend about measuring that new table you’re going to get for your apartment because you use a completely different measurement system? I guess many of us have gone through the gauntlet of not knowing exactly how much to tip after having a romantic dinner with your significant other.

Different countries have different customs as well as a variety of eccentricities. From the way words are pronounced and spelled to what unit of measurement is acceptable for daily use, every country around the globe has its own way of presenting things. However, most of these tend to agree with each other from culture to culture and from country to country, but when it comes to America, a lot of foreigners and visitors end up baffled and confused about certain practices and customs that seem to be unique in the United States. 

Maybe you have experienced a few of them and have asked your American friends why they are so. In any case, here are some things that may help you along the way as you traverse the tricky trail of uniquely American practices.

# 15 — You Can’t Drink Until You’re 21

Let’s start with the bone of contention among foreign visitors to the US. Americans have strict laws against purchasing and consuming alcohol if you are under the age of 21. If you are, let’s say someone from England, your 18-year-old might be surprised to find out that he or she will not be served any alcohol anywhere. This confuses a lot of visitors who come from countries where they become of age at 18, and that includes buying and drinking a few beers.

#14 — The Metric System VS Imperial System

If you are from Asia or Europe, it would be easy for you to find out how close the nearest restaurant is to your hotel or home because you have grown accustomed to using units of measurement like kilometers, centimeters, and the like. When you fly to the US, however, you may end up confused and struggle to convert your units of measurement to adapt to local units like inches, yards, and miles or having to convert today’s weather from Celsius to Fahrenheit to know if you should bring a jacket out. 

#13 — Prom & Homecoming

Prom is a school event that is common in many countries. It is a chance for students to socialize and kick it back a little from the grueling life of studying. However, what confuses many countries is how big a deal it is to Americans who openly consider and accept it as a teenager’s rite of passage. The amount of effort to ask someone out alone is incredibly amazing, and what we see on TV shows and movies do not really downplay its real life equivalent. Also, aside from prom, another school event called Homecoming has confused many teenagers around the world who are asking what really is it and how is it different from prom?

#12 — Sporting Scholarships

We have all seen it in movies and sometimes the news where a promising student with incredible athletic prowess gets accepted to a university. In the US, it is common for school athletes to be accepted in college because of how good they are at sports. In fact, many of them are even offered scholarships as long as they bat for the right university team. This academic practice is found to be bizarre by many countries mainly because no such program exists in their curricula. 

#11 — Flag Pride

There is not a single piece of sky in the US where you will not see the American flag waving proudly in the wind. While patriotism is another commendable trait of the American culture, what confuses foreigners is that almost every establishment that they visit has the country’s flag present. Whether they are at a restaurant or a strip mall, if there is an outdoor space or a large display wall, chances are, there will be an American flag. Even more confusing to tourists and foreigners is the fact that flags are even hung or displayed at people’s private homes.

#10 — Calling Jam “Jelly”

Whether it’s a point of confusion or just plain happy coincidence, the word “Jelly” seems to be used interchangeably with jam seeing that they have similar consistencies. It’s the interchanging of the use of the word that confuses non-Americans because jelly is generally used in other countries to describe a food product that is made out of gelatin and the homemade fruit preserve used to spread over bread is called jam in other countries. So, to an Englishman, offering him a spread of “Jelly” on his scone might give him the impression that he has unwittingly stepped into the Twilight Zone.

#9 — Gun Laws

In general, gun and ammunition laws in the US are an often discussed subject by many countries around the world. Many non-Americans have been stumped by the fact that generally, anyone can easily buy bullets over the counter and military grade firearms on the internet without any screening process. While there are provisions in the US Constitution provides individuals the right to bear arms, foreigners show an amount of concern and confusion over some clauses in different states that allow, for example, people to openly carry firearms in public. To this day, even concerned citizens and groups in the US itself are fighting for amendments and limitations on the country’s gun control laws after several gun-related tragedies shook the country over the past few decades.

#8 — Price Tags without the Tax

In the US, no matter which shop you go to, you would be surprised to find out that sales taxes are not included in any price tags - which is quite strange given that many countries around the world adopt the practice of including taxes in any product’s tags to do away with the burden of making estimates in your head while in line at the checkout counter. The reason behind this is that since the US has a different set of regional laws governing each state, that would mean that taxes will also vary per state; and in each state, items may cost a little more or a little less than the retail price depending on individual state tax.

#7 — Trick-or-Treating

When we were kids, we were told by our parents never to accept anything from strangers or talk to them. It is a golden rule that any parent applies no matter where they are around the world. But this changes when Americans celebrate Halloween. Indeed, going trick-or-treating is a creative American custom that people across the world copy or envy. Who would not want to dress up their kids in colorful costumes and show off to the other kids? What’s rather odd though is the practice of trick-or-treating itself where parents basically encourage children to ring other people’s doorbells asking for candy. It's contrary to warning them about accepting anything from strangers.

#6 — Super Bowl Advertisement

America has a consumer-driven economy, and it works for them. You may say that the US is an Ad Man’s paradise because all he has to do is to put something up on a billboard or on a TV screen and almost immediately, a product will sell. Speaking of ads, commercials and advertisements during Superbowl season are given so much attention and effort that it is almost an event unto itself. Every year, advertisers would put their best and creative foot forward to show their wittiest and most entertaining pieces of advertisements. What’s even more amusing is how people become emotionally invested in these ads that some of them even rank them in lists and talk about each one over the dinner table like matters of State.

#5 — The Icy Love Affair

Americans love iced drinks. From their coffee to their soda, their cups are almost brimming with ice. While we cannot argue that ice can freshen up a drink, the average American’s obsession with these frozen bits of water confuses many people from other parts of the world simply because they can drastically water down your drink and, at some point, add a little bit of dirt into it if the water used comes from a questionable source.

#4 — Spelling & Pronunciation 

This phenomenon is mostly a bone of contention between the US and their English and British friends. Where countries like England and Australia spell certain words like “Colour,” “Neighbour,” and “Prioritise,” and pronouncing every letter in the word “Fillet,” Americans would argue that their way of pronouncing and spelling words is a universal standard. We can’t argue, though, that dropping a few vowels here and there makes spelling a bit more sensible and practical, it cannot be ignored that they seem to be the only people in the world who have their own standards in spelling and pronunciation as opposed to what’s widely practiced around the world.

#3 — Going Out for Drinks

TV shows like Cheers and How I Met Your Mother seems to have reinforced the American practice of casually inviting friends out for a few drinks at a local bar. In countries like Japan, it is not an entirely alien concept to go out for a few drinks after work. However, casually calling up people to go out is something unheard of in many cultures. In some parts of the world, people get to gather with a drink in hand at parties or special occasions but not on, let’s say, a Thursday night.

#2 — A Classless Society

One of the most endearing qualities of American culture is the virtual eradication of social classes. It may sound absurd in countries that have a hard-line drawn between the wealthy and the poor but in the US, social status is given little to no attention at all and people may “move from one social class to the other” with ease by just upping their performance and pay grade at work. By having this egalitarian way of looking at society, Americans have pretty much plucked out the social stigmas attached to different levels of society.

#1 — Spending for College is a Serious Matter

According to data from the College Board, from the academic years of 2014 – 2015, the average cost to get into an in-State public college is about $23,410.00. Going to a private school would burn $46,272.00 right through your savings. And by private, we are not including Ivy League schools such as Harvard University where a single year can cost you $60,659.00. The cost of higher learning in America is confusingly expensive, and many students who have graduated and have gone on to establish distinguished careers are still paying for thousands of dollars’ worth of Student Loans. Compared to countries like England where the cost of attending a single year at Oxford is only at $13,903, American colleges and universities basically drive students into deep debt even before graduating. In other countries, like Sweden, Germany, and France, it is interesting to note that college education is FREE or – in some cases – partially free; and in countries like Denmark, there are instances that the national government pays for your college education and even provides you with a student allowance.

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Sources:
http://thoughtcatalog.com/natasha-norford/2015/03/18-things-americans-do-that-confuse-the-rest-of-the-world/
https://www.theodysseyonline.com/10-americans-confuse
http://www.goodhousekeeping.com/life/a33473/things-only-americans-do/