Chinese Religions Throughout Chinese History

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China is one of the most ancient civilizations on Earth and religious practices in this country date back to more than 7000 years. In modern times, we recognize three major Eastern religions in China – Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. However, long before the philosophical and spiritual teachings of Confucius and Lao-Tzu and the arrival of the wisdom of the Buddha in China, religion in China has always thrived in one form and several others. And today, Chinese religion has become a complex amalgamation of folk religion, the Three Religions, and the anti-religious sentiment of the Communist doctrine.

Hence, the term “Chinese religion” as we know it now refers to a diverse and complex collection of many traditions and beliefs. And for us to understand the modern expressions of Chinese religion, it becomes necessary for us to learn how and when various religions formed and reigned supreme, and how much they developed and influenced Chinese civilization throughout its long history.

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Neolithic China

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Orthodox Chinese religions are products of continuous historical development since prehistoric times. Ancient China was inhabited by many nomadic tribes that eventually developed agriculture, and archaeological records indicate that these small villages and communities gradually progressed toward more sophisticated technology and social stratification. There is also some evidence for prehistoric religious activities, particularly involving the dead, who were often buried in segregated cemeteries, with the bodies’ heads positioned toward a single cardinal direction. There was also some concern over the precise ordering of ritual acts, which is perhaps an early version over the importance placed on universal order and pattern in later Chinese cosmology. There is also evidence of people who acted as divination specialists as early as the 4th millennium BCE, while the 3rd millennium BCE saw the rise of interest in building tomb rams and coffin chambers. Early forms of ancestor worship also began during this period.  

Shang Dynasty: 1600 BC – 1050 BCE

Ancient Chinese Dynasties: Advancements and Achievements

By the time of the Shang Dynasty, religion developed to the point that the people established a definite “king of the gods” referred to as Shangti along with many lesser gods of other names. The people also held a strong belief in ghosts, proven by evidence in the form of amulets and charms and the written ghost stories during this time considered to be the earliest form of Chinese literature. Divination also became a significant part of Chinese religious beliefs during the Shang dynasty, with some individuals performing mystical and psychic abilities by telling another person’s future through oracle bones.

 

Religion in the Zhou Dynasty: 1046 – 256 BCE

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During the Zhou Dynasty, various regions of China started to become more unified, turning into a single civilization. At the same time, religious ideas from different regions of the area interacted with each other and began to assimilate. Both commoners and the elite believed in gods, ghosts, ancestors, and omens, and they practiced divination, sacrifice, and exorcism. Zhou ancestors were believed to live in a celestial court presided over by the Zhou high god Tian. During the Zhou Dynasty, the Mandate of Heaven concept developed and this Chinese civilization also eventually gave way to the teachings of Confucius and Mo-tzu whose teachings emphasized virtue, humanity, the value of social relationships, and just leadership.

Qin Dynasty: 221 – 206 BCE

In the time of the Qin Dynasty, the emperor Shi Huangti became infamous for his suppression of religion and other philosophical perspectives. During his reign, legalism was the state philosophy of the Qin government and the citizens were subjected to harsh penalties for violating even minor laws. The emperor also banned any books which were not about his family line, his dynasty or Legalism. Though he suppressed his people’s religious beliefs, he was obsessed in conquering death by searching for the key to achieving immortality. However, he failed to succeed in accomplishing this feat, having died in 210 BCE while searching for immortality on tour through his kingdom.

Han Dynasty: 206 BCE – 220 CE

The Han Dynasty was the first dynasty in China to embrace Confucianism, which became the ideological foundation of all regimes from then on until the day Imperial China met its end. The reign of the Han Dynasty was a period of great prosperity, with the emperors of this period having supported and encouraged the development of art, science, technology, literature, and religion. The emperors were seen ruling under the Mandate of Heaven with the important responsibility of mediating between the gods and the people. Then, sometime during the 1st century CE, Buddhism reached China, probably through the travelers who took the Silk Road from northern India. By the 2nd century CE, a variety of other beliefs, practices, and disciplines arose, which eventually gave rise to alchemy, scientific experiments and the Taoist religion.

Six Dynasties Period: 220 – 589 CE

The fall of the Han dynasty began a period of disunity referred to as the “Six Dynasties,” and during this time, Buddhism flourished and became a major religion in China ever since. While this period was almost in constant political upheaval, it is also considered to be an important time for religious development.

The uncertainty and brutality of the period influenced Buddhism in China and Buddhist monks had to meet the people's spiritual needs by developing rituals and practices of transcendence. And so, in the sixth century, new schools of Chinese Buddhism sought to adapt Buddhism to Chinese ways of thinking.

Sui Dynasty: 581 – 618 CE

After three and a half centuries of political fragmentation, China was reunified by the Sui dynasty in 581. The founder of this short-lived dynasty supported Buddhism, particularly the Tiantai school, and used this religion and philosophical movement as a unifying ideology shared by many of the citizens in both North and South.

 

Tang Dynasty: 618 – 906 CE

However, after four decades of rule, the Sui was overthrown in a series of rebellions and ended up getting replaced by the Tang dynasty – a time regarded by historians as a high point in Chinese civilization. The royal family of this dynasty officially supported Taoism because of them claimed blood relations to Lao-Tzu. However, Buddhism also enjoyed great favor and imperial patronage throughout the period. The T'ien-t'ai, Ch'an and Pure Land schools of Buddhism continued to rise in popularity, and many monasteries and temples were built during this time.

Sung Dynasty: 960 – 1279

After a short unstable period, the “Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms,” the Sung Dynasty rose to rule China. Sung intellectuals sought answers to philosophical and political inquiries in the Confucian Classics, and this renewed interest in the Confucian ideals arose alongside the decline of Buddhism. The Sung Neo-Confucian philosophers found a certain purity in the originality of the ancient classical texts and wrote commentaries about them. However, the rigidity of the state’s official creed and philosophy led to the inhibition of societal development in pre-modern China. While this resulted to several generations of political, social and spiritual stability, it also decelerated cultural and institutional advancement in the country up to the 19th century.

When the Mongols conquered North China and established the Yuan dynasty in the 13th century, they did not attempt to impose their religion – which consisted of a cult of Heaven as well as nature and shamanistic practices – on the Chinese people. And so, the existing three religions in China enjoyed comparative freedom under these foreign rulers. During the Yuan dynasty that a large number of Muslim people were brought in to help in the administration of China. During this time that Islam spread all over the empire, establishing major population bases in the western provinces of Yunnan and Gansu.

Ming Dynasty: 1368 – 1644

The populace’s strong feelings against the rule of foreigners led to the peasant revolt that forced the Yuan dynasty out of Chinese territory and the subsequent establishment of the Ming Dynasty in 1368. During this period, Taoism and Buddhism had become poorly-organized popular religions, which led to the rise of new blends of Confucian, Taoist and Buddhist elements so, this paved the way for the rise of many private academies in the 16th century, opening an avenue for widespread philosophical discussions and conflicts.

With the eventual collapse of the Ming empire, the Qing Dynasty came to power - an empire that was founded by the semi-nomadic Manchus. In public policy, the Manchus were strong supporters of Confucianism, but in their private lives, the Qing rulers were devoted to Tibetan Buddhism. Most religious developments during the Qing dynasty were continuations of Ming traditions, except Protestant Christianity as well as the Taiping movement – which is the most significant innovation in Qing religion. The teachings of the Taiping Tianguo or the Celestial Kingdom of Great Peace combined the motifs of Christianity, shamanism and popular sectarian beliefs. Then, in the 19th century, traditional Chinese religions were subjected to waves of persecution, and many religious and institutional religious temples ended up getting destroyed.

The Qing dynasty collapsed in 1911, and with the fall of imperial China, Chinese intellectuals became free to invest themselves in new ideas and political forms. They also were given a chance to avidly study and translate Western writings, including those that spoke of Marxism. The result of this Westernization and secularization left Confucianism and other Chinese traditions vulnerable from attacks which led to the destruction or occupation of thousands of temples. Nevertheless, while these new ideas heavily affected the larger cities, the majority of the Chinese people continued to practice popular religions and traditions as before.

People’s Republic of China: 1949 – present

After the Communist Party’s triumph in the Chinese Civil War under the leadership of Mao Zedong, the People’s Republic of China was proclaimed in 1949. In the early parts of its governance, the People’s Republic of China kept a hostile stance toward religion, which was considered to be emblematic of feudalism and foreign colonialism. Places of worship were then converted into non-religious buildings intended for secular use. Religious beliefs or practices were discouraged because and labeled as "backward" and "superstitious" by the government, later being completely condemned during the Cultural Revolution. Millions of innocent people were killed by the military or injured by fellow citizens poisoned by communist propaganda. It was only in the late 1970s that this attitude relaxed because the 1978 Constitution of the People’s Republic of China supposedly "guaranteed" religious freedom, with a number of restrictions, and as long as religious practices were not perceived to challenge the communist authority of the state.

Today, popular, or folk, religious practice in China has combined elements of the old ancestral rites of previous dynasties and is marked by a propensity for syncretism. For most people in China, there is no problem with combining different beliefs and religious practices, unlike some other cultures that condemn those who follow religious or philosophical movements that are different from their own. While religion in China has several millennia of tumultuous periods of decline and prosperity, what has remained constant is the Chinese people’s ability to select the religious practices and teachings that work best for them at a particular point in time. They have always exercised the freedom to choose which religion could help them in their journey toward a harmonious life.

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Sources:

• http://www.religionfacts.com/chinese-religion/history
• http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/timelines/china_timeline.htm
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_China#Proto-Chinese_and_Xia-Shang-Zhou_culture
• http://www.ancient.eu/article/891/
• http://www.patheos.com/Library/Chinese-Religion
• http://www2.kenyon.edu/Depts/Religion/Fac/Adler/Writings/Chinese%20Religions%20-%20Overview.htm
• http://asiasociety.org/chinese-religions-and-philosophies
• http://acc6.its.brooklyn.cuny.edu/~phalsall/texts/chinrelg.html
• http://blogs.ssrc.org/tif/2013/10/01/what-is-religion-in-china-a-brief-history/

Perfectly Preserved Body Found of 1,000-year-old Buddhist Master Ci Xian

Something mysterious has been discovered at the Dinghui Temple in Wu'an in the Hubei province of China. A golden mummy, the preserved remains of Master Ci Xian that is over 1,000 years old, underwent a CT scan on July 8, 2017, that was witnessed by monks, media and prayers . To everyone's surprise, researchers found that he still had a complete brain and that his bones were also really healthy.

According to Dr. Wu Yongqing who conducted the scan:

"We can see his bones are as healthy as a normal person's...The upper jaw, the upper teeth, the ribs, the spine and all the joints are all complete...It's incredible to see this."

According to historical records, Master Ci Xian was a well-respected monk from India who had translated 10 major sutras into Chinese and traveled from India to the Kingdom of Khitan (which is in modern day northeastern China) in an effort to promote Buddhism. Some of his translations were carved into stone tablets that can still be seen today. After his death, Master Ci Xian’s disciples preserved his body well. But over the years, the body was somehow lost, never to be found until it was rediscovered in a cave in the 1970s. 

Master Ci Xian’s remains were worshiped at the Dinghui Temple since 2011, and in 2016 the temple covered his body in gold paint as a sign of respect. According to Master Du at the Ding Hui temple, elderly monks can feel when they are about to pass away and will instruct their disciples to either cremate or preserve their remains. If preserved, his remains would be placed in a massive ceramic jar filled with natural preservatives. If the spiritual level of the monk is high enough, or there is a lot of cultivated energy within the monk’s body, then it would be soaked in the liquid for about 3 years. After that, the body will be removed from the liquid and covered in rice paste.

This may seem really strange to a lot of people but it is believed that all monks are cultivators with the goal of reaching enlightenment. And as they are cultivating, they are generating energy within their bodies. As the energy grows, it will start to change the cultivator’s body from a fundamental level. Often times, when a monk cultivates to a high level, pearl-like substances are left behind his ashes when he is cremated. The pearls are called sarira and are considered sacred and precious. Throughout human history and its billions of cremations, it was only high level cultivators who were able to leave sariras behind.

World’s Oldest Book of Wisdom Predicts The Future

Divination is the reading of signs or symbols with the intention of receiving guidance and wisdom about current situations and future events. From ancient and medieval worlds up to our modern era, many different methods of divination have been used and are still being used today, which include but are not limited to: the observation of animal behavior, the movement of the stars and the planets, the casting of lots, and utterances from supposed oracles. In the past, these methods were understood to be some of the ways of communicating with the spiritual world or unleashing unseen powers. But from a modern psychological standpoint, divination now represents one of humans’ subtle means of accessing the wisdom of the unconscious mind.

One ancient system of divination, which originated in China and has endured until now even though thousands of years have already passed, is steeped in myth and legend, and possesses undeniable spiritual, philosophical and historical value. This is known as the I Ching or the Book of Changes, and it is unquestionably one of the oldest and most important books in the world’s literature.

Brief Background:

The I Ching, or the Book of Changes, is an ancient Chinese divination text and is also the oldest of the Chinese classics. The text possesses a history of more than two and a half millennia of commentary and interpretation, making it an influential text throughout the world for the inspiration it serves in religion, art, literature, psychoanalysis and even business.

Originally, the I Ching was a divination manual in the Western Zhou period, around 1000 to 750 BC. Sometime between 500 and 200 BC, which was over the course of the Warring States period and the early imperial period, it was transformed into a cosmological text that came with a series of philosophical commentaries known as the “Ten Wings.” After it became a part of the Five Classics in the 2nd century BC, the I Ching established itself as not only the basis of divination practice for centuries across the Far East, but also the subject of scholarly commentary and an influential tool in the Western understanding of Eastern thought.

The interpretation of the readings found in the Book of Changes has sparked intense debate for centuries. Nevertheless, many have used the book symbolically to provide guidance for moral decision making, which is why it is not surprising that both of the two branches of Chinese philosophy, Confucianism and Taoism, share common roots through this ancient text. Many western figures – like psychologist Carl Gustav Jung, physicist Wolfgang Pauli, and writer Hermann Hesse - have recognized the Book of Changes as an intelligent, profound and sophisticated system of divination, which is most likely why it has been in continuous use up to now in different parts of the world.

Philosophy of the I Ching:

Change is the central idea behind the I Ching. Much like the way the night gradually and without division follows after day, and one season evolves into another, nothing in life and in the universe is fixed or ever unchanging. Everything is not split into the timeframes of the past, the present or the future. All things in the universe are interlinked and constantly moving and changing. We are all in a state of flux and transition. And the path to understanding and embracing change involves acknowledging and comprehending the relationship between the energetic polarities of Yin and Yang.

Yin and Yang, while seemingly opposing energies are in fact complementary. Yin corresponds to receptive, mutable and contracting form, while Yang corresponds to active, creative and expansive force. The balance between these two energies is ever changing and transforming, which is why it is signified by a wavy, center line (or Wu Wei Line) in the well-known Yin-Yang symbol – also known as Tai Chi or The Great Ultimate.  

In Taoist thinking, the concept of energetic balance between Yin and Yang and flow have a deep and meaningful relationship in people’s lives and that of the universe as a whole. And because everything in the universe is generated from the Yin-Yang polarity and the flow between the two opposing yet complementary energies, the philosophy of the I Ching welcomes change, movement, transformation, momentum and regeneration.

The I Ching is all about change – exploring and defining the changes you experience even if they may be beyond your current understanding, and revealing all the possibilities for future change, action as well as inaction.

Basic Structure of the I Ching as a Divination System:

In the Book of Changes, Yang and Yin are represented by unbroken and broken lines. In utilizing the I Ching as a tool for divination, these lines are used to create “hexagrams” – figures which are made up of six lines. Each inquiry to the oracle will require a hexagram reading and possibly additional line readings as well.

A hexagram is made up of two trigrams, and each trigram is made up of three lines. Each line is either broken or solid, corresponding to the negative force Yin and the positive force Yang. There are eight possible trigrams: Ch’ien for the Cosmos, Chen for Thunder, K’an for Water, Ken for Mountain, K’un for Earth, Sun for Wind or Wood, Li  for Fire, and Tui for Lake. These eight trigrams were conceived as symbols of all that happens in both heaven and on earth. At the same time, they were all held to be in a state of continual transition, with one trigram changing into another, just as transitions from one phenomenon to another are continuously occurring in the physical world.

There are sixty-four different hexagrams, and each hexagram has six changing lines, and its presence affect the hexagram’s meaning.  These changing lines in the primary hexagram also point to the creation of a second, transformed hexagram, which is also included in the readings and interpretation when responding to a person’s consult over a situation or answering a question.

All in all, there are 4,096 possible core readings. With the inclusion of symbols, nuclear trigrams, as well as other factors, the interpretation possibilities provided by the Book of Changes are pushed into the tens of millions.

Consulting the I Ching:

The I Ching is made up of 64 chapters, and each of them relate to a corresponding hexagram which presents a particular message. In consulting the I Ching, the first step to do is to formulate a question, followed by the creation of a hexagram. This is typically done through the process of throwing coins, but several other ways have also been utilized in consulting the ancient text. One traditional method uses grains of rice, while another uses yarrow sticks. But for our purpose of explaining the process of consulting the I Ching, we will be using the method of throwing coins as example.

Before casting the coins down, those who seek to consult the Book of Changes for divine guidance must first meditate on the question they want to ask, which are usually related to the issue or situation they are currently facing. With a question in mind, the three coins are shaken in a cupped hand before they are thrown down. And in throwing the coins, the intention is to create a hexagram. As previously mentioned, each hexagram is built up from a series of six lines, and these lines are either broken or unbroken, reflecting the energetic qualities of the situation at hand.

A straight line ‘_______’ represents Yang energy or young Yang, while a broken line      ‘____  ____’ represents Yin energy or young Yin. There is also another energetic quality which reflects the dynamism of the Yin or Yang energy of any situation; and so, they may be at the point of transformation, either from Yin to Yang or vice versa. These lines are called ‘moving’ or ‘changing’ lines and they can either be Yin moving or changing – also referred to as old Yin -  or Yang moving or changing – which is also known as old Yang. The unique combination of these four energetic qualities and the possibilities over the six lines of a hexagram represent the energy of the entire situation an individual is consulting the Book of Changes about.

In the coin method, each time three coins are thrown at the same time translates to an energetic line. And so, throwing the coins six times create the six lines that become the whole hexagram. The two distinguishable sides of the coins are assigned numerical values: “heads” is given the value of 3, while “tails” has the value of 2. By throwing three coins at the same time, their combined value will fall between 6 and 9. These values can then be translated to their energetic lines. 6 corresponds to the old Yin; 7 is the young Yang; 8 is the young Yin; and 9 is the old Yang.

The value and the type of energetic line of the first coin throw corresponds to the first or the bottom line of the hexagram, while the result of the second throw corresponds to the second line from the bottom line of the hexagram, and so on. Repeating the coin throw six times helps formulate the values of the lines of the hexagram from the bottom up. The bottom three lines are referred to as the lower trigram, while the top three lines are the upper trigram. Together, a pair of trigrams make up the whole hexagram.

Once the trigrams have been written down, the grid table of the Book of Changes is consulted to identify the name and number of the hexagram that was formulated based on the results of the coin throws. This is the primary hexagram. Each hexagram chapter in the I Ching is divided into two sections. The main opening text provides an overview of the message the hexagram pertains to, but there are also a series of six supplementary passages, each relating to one of the six lines of the hexagram. If moving or changing lines are present within the hexagram, additional line passages that these changing lines correspond to should also be read for further guidance and insight.  

Having moving or changing lines in a hexagram may mean that the question asked or the situation consulted about is in an extreme state of flux, which indicates that it is unbalanced or due for immediate change. And so, in addition to reading the supplementary line passages within the primary hexagram chapter, these moving or changing lines can also be allowed to change. This means that every old Yin becomes a young Yang; while every old Yang becomes a young Yin. And with this transition, a second extension or relating hexagram is created.

These two hexagrams – specifically the main text and relevant line passages of the primary hexagram, and the main body text of the extension hexagram – are read together to disclose the full meaning of the spiritual and moral guidance being offered by the Book of Changes for a specific consult or question.

The I Ching represents an entire ancient philosophy that should be treated with great respect and admiration. It symbolizes the cyclical interconnectedness of the Universe and it serves as a moral guide to a personal path of balance and harmony. The wisdom this book contains has the potential to stimulate your sensitivity, creativity and resourcefulness, even when you are experiencing the most challenging and demanding periods of your life, during which those vital personal qualities are not as easy to unleash from within.

Most importantly, the I Ching does not give you specific and straight-to-the point ‘answers’ you might expect to get. Instead, it empowers you and encourages you to look within for the answer that you seek. Its mysticism as a divination system is, paradoxically, founded on its emphasis on the phenomenal nature of human beings.

But apart from its spiritual value and usefulness as a tool for divination, the book also offers a wealth of beautiful poetry and Chinese philosophy that stretches back 5000 years into the origins of ancient Chinese customs and values. And perhaps this is the more widely-embraced reason why the I Ching should be considered a global treasure.  

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Sources:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Ching
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Ching_divination
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Ching%27s_influence
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleromancy
http://www.ichingonline.net/about.php
http://www.iging.com/intro/introduc.htm
http://www.messagetoeagle.com/i-ching-the-book-of-changes-worlds-oldest-book-of-wisdom-used-to-predict-future-events/
http://www.wakingtimes.com/2012/09/04/the-i-ching-a-spiritual-guide/
http://www.psychicscience.org/ching3help.aspx