August 11, 2017

Insane Things People Have Done Through History to Achieve Eternal Youth

August 11, 2017/ Michael Chen

Man is in an endless pursuit to achieve immortality. For as far as mankind’s written history allows us to recall, humanity has always been fascinated in finding ways to extend our lifespan in the hopes of slowing, if not putting a permanent stop, to our body’s inevitable biological aging process. For some, our attempts at prolonging life is limited to the more conventional method of leading a healthy lifestyle by eating nourishing food, exercising and maintaining a positive and tranquil state of mind.

However, at several points in our past, we find people who have pushed the boundaries of human creativity and imagination in their attempt to gain eternal youth. From a more scientific standpoint that we have today, some of the lengths these individuals had taken during their lifetime to become immortal are not only deemed as completely misguided but could also be regarded as bordering on insanity.

And so, for this video, let’s enumerate the insane things people have done throughout history to achieve immortality or eternal youth.

#1 — Bathing in Sour Donkey Milk

Cleopatra came to be known in history as the last Ptolemaic queen of Egypt and is arguably the most famous member of the Ptolemaic dynasty’s royal line. But other than her role in the Roman political conflicts that eventually led to the downfall of the last dynasty of ancient Egypt, she also gained renown for her striking beauty and irresistible allure. As to how she managed to retain her youthful and brilliant glow, Cleopatra regularly bathed in sour donkey milk. In the ancient times, the donkey’s milk was used as some kind of chemical peel, as the lactic acid it contains peels off the topmost layer of the human skin. The queen was also believed to be fascinated with using other means to maintain and enhance her physical appearance such as utilizing crocodile feces as a rudimentary form of makeup foundation.

#2 — Drinking the Blood of Gladiators

The Romans were very creative when it came to coming up with various and sometimes revolting concoctions in an attempt to improve their health or extend their lifespan. One example of an unpleasant habit that the Romans largely practiced for centuries is drinking the blood of gladiators. As people who fought to the death for a living, gladiators were highly-regarded for their bravery, strength and vitality. And it was believed that those who would want to inherit a gladiator’s power must drink the warrior’s warm blood in order to consume his essence and soul. In fact, some people who suffered from epilepsy at the time considered the blood of gladiators as an effective cure for their affliction. Their blood was such a hot commodity during this era that people would rush down into the arena and sip a vanquished fighter’s blood straight from his arm or throat to absorb his power. There were also concession stands that made a lucrative living by selling the blood of these gladiators while the blood servings were still warm.

#3 — Consumption of Immortality Pills & Elixirs of Life

The Western world was not the only civilization interested in finding the answer to attaining eternal youth. Imperial China’s history is also filled with tales of men or groups of people who have dedicated much of their life in concocting immortality pills and elixirs of life that would grant ceaseless existence, be it physical or spiritual. Many Chinese alchemists have dared to make their own formulas of pills and elixirs that could supposedly cease and potentially even reverse the process of human aging. These efforts were largely supported by several emperors as well as members of the noble bloodline who hoped death would not be able to take away their power, influence and legacy.

The first emperor of the Qin Dynasty, Qin Shi Huang, for example, was not just known for being the first ruler to unify China; he was also known for his obsession in finding the key to immortality. He sent people away to look in different parts of his vast empire for a “real” Elixir of Life that would grant him eternal life. He even took immortality pills which were formulated by his alchemists. In the end, the emperor died young at 39 years of age and the most likely cause of his demise was mercury poisoning, perhaps from all the immortality pills he, consumed during his brief life.

Unfortunately, the dream of living forever was not exclusive to Qin Shi Huang. Many other emperors of China that came after him also regularly consumed immortality pills and drank elixirs which contained toxic substances, and instead of extending their lives, these pills and elixirs only shortened the duration of their respective reigns.

#4 — Self-Mummification

Mummification is the process which involves the intentional or incidental preservation of a deceased’s skin, flesh and organs. But not all mummified bodies were preserved after their death; some people in the past deliberately commenced the preservation of their corporeal body while they were still alive in order to achieve a superior and more enlightened state of being.

“Sokushinbutsu” is an ascetic practice of Buddhist monks largely performed in Japan which is believed to have started sometime in the 11th century. This extreme Buddhist practice of asceticism involved the shunning of all worldly pleasures to the point that the monks would enter a process of self-mummification even while they were still alive. The Sokushinbutsu requires a period of around 3,000 days up to ten years before the entire process is completed by devoted monks. They would have to follow a very strict diet referred to as “mokujikigyo,” which literally translates to “eating a tree.” This means that the monk could not eat anything more than the seeds and resins that could be gathered in the mountains, and must abstain from eating cereals. Eventually, these monks would fast and meditate for longer periods of time until they completely starve themselves, denying themselves even the consumption of liquids. Even in this weakened condition, they would continue to be in a state of “jhana” or meditation until they die. Their dehydrated bodies would become naturally preserved mummies that are still revered and venerated by many followers of Buddhism. Some people today even still regard these mummified monks as very much alive although their bodies are said to be in a deep meditative trance.

Hundreds of Buddhist monks in Japan attempted to achieve this extreme form of meditative state, but only 24 monks so far were granted the status of being the “Living Buddha.” Eventually, the practice of Sokushinbutsu was outlawed by the government of Japan in the late 19th century although self-mummification in their culture still endured until the 20th century. At present, however, Sokushinbutsu is no longer an advocated Buddhist practice in the country.

#5 — Drinking Gold Chloride

Among the most notable cases of people who have pursued eternal youth is that of Diane de Poitiers, the mistress of King Henry II of France. The king’s official wife was Catherine de’ Medici but he found much comfort in having the widow Diane de Poitiers as his companion even though she was 20 years older than him. History books wrote of her youthful appearance and her porcelain-like skin that never seemed to fade even as she grew older.

King Henry II’s mistress took great lengths to ensure that she maintained her physique. She kept in shape by swimming daily, horseback riding and hunting. However, her beauty secret that ensured permanence of her great white skin is her regular consumption of an elixir which contained a mixture of gold chloride and diethyl ether. This concoction was very popular at French court and was believed at the time to be an effective anti-aging treatment for its ability to harness the power of the sun and transfer it to its drinker.

However, Diane de Poitiers’s obsession with keeping her youthful beauty came at a great cost, as her desire to look forever young and the remedy she resorted to in order to preserve her appearance was the one that slowly and eventually killed her. At age 66, her daily dose of gold chloride indeed made her look half her actual age, but she is also thought to have succumbed to the secondary effect of the concoction – that is, chronic gold poisoning.

Even in modern times, man remains engrossed in its quest for eternal youth and prolonging human life. Most people have chosen to stick with more conventional methods such as maintaining a healthy and active lifestyle, while others have turned to the breakthroughs of medical science for more radical options that would allow them to enhance their beauty and cling onto their youth for as long as possible. The priorities of modern science, of course, are beyond maintaining a person’s young and beautiful aesthetics. The field of medical science is also fixated with making the human body impervious to deterioration by finding a way to permanently suppress cell death and consequently achieve actual physical immortality.

There’s no certainty when humanity may successfully unlock the secret to eternal life and perpetual youth, but should the time come that we do become immortals, what do you think would life mean for us then if we consciously know that we can never die? Perhaps that is the bigger mystery we should try and answer first.

SOURCES:
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-4577860/Man-s-craziest-attempts-history-cheat-death.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleopatra
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty
http://hippocratescode.com/epilepsy/
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https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12953616
http://www.allday.com/these-real-people-actually-tried-to-achieve-immortality-2180824159.html
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http://io9.gizmodo.com/7-ways-that-people-died-trying-to-become-immortal-1691947345
http://nifymag.com/the-craziest-things-people-have-ever-done-throughout-history-to-try-and-cheat-death/#.WVcLKoiGPb0
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokushinbutsu
http://io9.gizmodo.com/the-gruesome-and-excruciating-practice-of-mummifying-yo-1515905564
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/6865939/French-kings-mistress-poisoned-by-gold-elixir.html
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-1236916/Dying-look-good-French-kings-mistress-killed-gold-elixir-youth.html

August 01, 2017

5 Great Ancient Mysteries of China

August 01, 2017/ Michael Chen

China is one of the world’s four ancient civilizations and considered the oldest civilization with an unbroken history up to today's modern era. Though Chinese history is unrivaled in its documentation, and its ancient origins have been extensively studied by various experts in science, history and archaeology, China – as a cradle of human civilization – remains a place full of secrets.

Moreover, so, let us examine five of the greatest ancient mysteries that China has to offer.

1. Ancient City Under Fuxian Lake

Spanning an area of 212 square kilometers, the Fuxian Lake stretches out through Chenjiang, Jianchuan and Huaning Counties in Yunnan Province. It is ranked as the third-largest lake in Yunnan, and also the deepest lake in the province. As it is 155 meters deep at its greatest depth, the Fuxian Lake is also the third-deepest freshwater lake in all of China.

The Fuxian Lake is known for its unique fauna and many endemic species, but beyond this is a mystery that lies scattered on the lake’s unexplored bottom. According to an ancient local legend, a city-like silhouette under the lake can be seen on a beautiful calm day from the mountains nearby. To confirm if there is a hidden city in the deep waters of the lake, a Chinese submarine archaeology team stationed in the area conducted surveys in the Fuxian Lake.

In 2001, they discovered earthenware and stonework beneath the lake, covering an area of approximately 2.4 to 2.7 square kilometers. Carbon dating of some shells attached to the blocks confirmed that the site was 1750 years old, which meant that it had existed around 257 CE and sunk during the Han period. It is believed that the ancient unidentified structure of the under-lake construction could represent the remains of the ancient Dian Kingdom. The Dian Kingdom is an ancient country with a high level of civilization which mysteriously disappeared after 86 BC.

As for how the ancient civilization ended up at the bottom of the lake, some say that the ancient kingdom slid into the lake during an earthquake. Nevertheless, there are various legends involving the Fuxian Lake which has endured for more than 1,000 years that have yet to be verified. Since it is a huge body of water that remains largely unexplored, the credibility of these compelling mysteries may remain unconfirmed in the foreseeable future.

2. Mystery of the Huashan Caves

Located in the eastern suburbs of Tunxi district in the Anhui province city of Huangshan, the Huashan Caves are steeped in ancient, mysterious legends. Each ranging from 10 to 20 meters in height, the Huashan Caves, were manually chiseled more than 1,700 years ago. Stone columns, which vary in shapes support the caves’ ceilings. Altogether, 36 chambers were found among the Huashan Hills. Some of these chambers are filled with water, while some are two-story chambers. It's neatly chiseled walls and roofs, the big pillars and stone stairs, indicated that men excavated the caves.

Out of all the 36 caves, the biggest of them all is the Qingliang Cave, which is also referred to as the “Underground Palace” because of its scale and magnificent layout. This cave has a total length of 170 meters and an area of 12,600 square meters, and digging out the cave could have originally produced at least 50,000 cubic meters of stone. Inside the cave, a stone bridge above an underground river can be found, and stone paths lead to different halls.

The Huashan Mountain has the biggest, most content-rich, and best-preserved ancient rock carvings ever discovered in China. They stretch 200 meters long and 40 meters high containing over 1,800 images. Carbon dating suggests the oldest ones are 16,000 years old with the youngest still 690 years old.

Since no historical records reveal why the ancient people dug the Huashan Caves, some people believe the caves were mined for many stones needed to build a nearby town, to station troops, or maybe as Imperial tombs eventually abandoned. Despite all these guesses, the true reason creating this elaborate site remains an enduring mystery unanswered by today's man.

3. The Mystery of the Mystical Yellow Emperor

Ancient Chinese records speak of an extraordinary being, described as a god-like king and the “son of heaven.” This wise and powerful being was Huang-Di or Yellow Emperor. He was a legendary ruler who is said to have lived for over one hundred years around 3,000 B.C. Cited for being instrumental in developing the Chinese society and for being the founder of Chinese civilization, the Yellow Emperor created Chinese medicine, various religious practices, and mechanical inventions.

However, aside from these achievements, there are several other reasons why the legendary Yellow Emperor was special and different. Huang-Di possessed advanced technology and extensive knowledge of the stars and the heavens. It was even believed that he descended on Earth in a “thunderclap on a clear day” when he began his reign. It has also been said that he had the ability to summon a metal-scaled dragon. He also kept in his possession a magical chariot known as Changhuan, which could take the Yellow Emperor to any part of his kingdom at fantastic speed.

Given the nature of the Yellow Emperor’s backstory, there are those who have speculated that Huang-Di was actually an extra-terrestrial who landed in the land of ancient China five thousand years ago and ruled over the people who lived in the area at the time. Whether this is true or not, it cannot be denied that the Yellow Emperor is a very important figure in ancient China’s legends and history.

4. Ancient World Buried Under the Taklamakan Desert

Ancient people believed that once you entered the Taklamakan desert, there was no getting out of it. The Taklamakan desert is the largest desert in China, and it is considered to be the world’s second largest shifting-sand desert, covering a massive area of over 33,700 square kilometers.

A long, long time ago, houses and temples were built amid the vast space of the “Sea of Death.” However, today, everything – including precious ancient relics – are hidden deep under the sand. Over the years, archaeologists have begun to discover some of the secrets that have been hidden in this mysterious region.

Aside from its vital role in trade and commerce back when Silk Road connected various traders from the East and the West, some believe that an entire ancient world is hidden beneath the sand of the Taklamakan Desert. Remains of houses, temples, and the ancient city of Loulan were found buried under the sand, and corpses dating back nearly 4,000 years were also discovered in the area.

In the late 1980s, several well-preserved mummies estimated to be at least 3000 years old were also discovered in the Taklamakan desert. These well-preserved corpses revealed that these people once had long reddish-blond hair and European features. Neither did they appear to be the ancestors of the modern-day Chinese people. Moreover, so, some experts in archaeology now believe that these mummies were once citizens of an ancient civilization existing at the crossroads between Europe and China.

While this seems to be a big leap in logic, more surprising discoveries are expected to as archaeologists continue to investigate the mysterious and dangerous desert, which could support or refute the hypothesis of a secret ancient world hidden beneath the sand.

5. The Great Pyramid of China

The story behind the Great Pyramid of China is beyond interesting. For years, the Chinese government has allegedly hindered proper and extensive studies to be performed on the numerous pyramids located near the city of Xi-an. The pyramids are believed to be over 8,000 years old, and one of them is said to be much larger than the world-famous Great Pyramid of Giza.

The knowledge of the existence of several pyramids in China came to popular attention sometime after the Second World War. Many of the stories focused on the “Great White Pyramid” or the Maoling, which is the tomb of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (156-87 BCE) located in Xingping, Shaanxi Province.

During World War II, U.S. Army Air Corps pilot James Gaussman is said to have seen a white jewel-topped pyramid during his flight between India and China. Fascinated by what he saw, he decided to take several photographs, which he later submitted along with a detailed report to his superiors as soon as he returned to base. Colonel Maurice Sheahan, the Far Eastern director of the Trans World Airline, told a similar eyewitness account, which was published in the March 28, 1947, edition of The New York Times. Over the years, numerous images of the alleged gigantic pyramids in China have been taken by pilots and satellites, providing further confirmation of the existence of these mysterious structures in Asia.

Given the immense knowledge of geometry and mathematics required to build these pyramids, a glaring question has been raised: Who were the mysterious people that built these Chinese pyramids?

There are those who speculate that the Great Pyramid, as well as the other pyramids standing in the area, were actually built by extraterrestrial beings. According to reports, several European excursions took samples of the objects and metals around these pyramids. Analysis showed a fascinating detail about them: the metallic materials present at the Pyramids have yet to be accurately identified until now, since these metals are made out of materials that are currently unknown to modern science.

Aside from the five things we have just discussed, there are several other puzzling and strange ancient places and objects in this Far East civilization that are still shrouded in mystery. Many of these places and artifacts are unknown to the Chinese themselves, but should the time come that their hidden mysteries are completely unraveled, they have the potential to rewrite history as we know it.

Sources:
http://www.messagetoeagle.com/10-great-ancient-mysteries-of-china/
http://www.ancientpages.com/2015/06/13/underwater-city-unveiling-the-secrets-at-the-bottom-of-fuxian-lake/
http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/m/anhui/travel/2011-05/10/content_12483078.htm
http://www.messagetoeagle.com/unanswered-questions-related-to-the-mysterious-huashan-caves/
http://www.ancientpages.com/2015/09/21/unravelling-mystery-yellow-emperor-connection-regulus/
https://www.ufoinsight.com/worldly-mysteries-chinas-yellow-emperor/
http://www.ancientpages.com/2014/05/21/secret-ancient-world-buried-under-the-vast-takla-makan-desert/
http://www.ancient-code.com/the-great-pyramid-of-china-the-largest-and-oldest-pyramid-on-the-planet/
http://www.ancientpages.com/2015/10/10/mysterious-great-pyramid-of-china-almost-totally-unknown-even-to-most-chinese/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_pyramids#Sensational_claims

July 19, 2017

Chinese Religions Throughout Chinese History

July 19, 2017/ Michael Chen

China is one of the most ancient civilizations on Earth and religious practices in this country date back to more than 7000 years. In modern times, we recognize three major Eastern religions in China – Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. However, long before the philosophical and spiritual teachings of Confucius and Lao-Tzu and the arrival of the wisdom of the Buddha in China, religion in China has always thrived in one form and several others. And today, Chinese religion has become a complex amalgamation of folk religion, the Three Religions, and the anti-religious sentiment of the Communist doctrine.

Hence, the term “Chinese religion” as we know it now refers to a diverse and complex collection of many traditions and beliefs. And for us to understand the modern expressions of Chinese religion, it becomes necessary for us to learn how and when various religions formed and reigned supreme, and how much they developed and influenced Chinese civilization throughout its long history.

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Neolithic China

Orthodox Chinese religions are products of continuous historical development since prehistoric times. Ancient China was inhabited by many nomadic tribes that eventually developed agriculture, and archaeological records indicate that these small villages and communities gradually progressed toward more sophisticated technology and social stratification. There is also some evidence for prehistoric religious activities, particularly involving the dead, who were often buried in segregated cemeteries, with the bodies’ heads positioned toward a single cardinal direction. There was also some concern over the precise ordering of ritual acts, which is perhaps an early version over the importance placed on universal order and pattern in later Chinese cosmology. There is also evidence of people who acted as divination specialists as early as the 4th millennium BCE, while the 3rd millennium BCE saw the rise of interest in building tomb rams and coffin chambers. Early forms of ancestor worship also began during this period.

Shang Dynasty: 1600 BC – 1050 BCE

Ancient Chinese Dynasties: Advancements and Achievements

By the time of the Shang Dynasty, religion developed to the point that the people established a definite “king of the gods” referred to as Shangti along with many lesser gods of other names. The people also held a strong belief in ghosts, proven by evidence in the form of amulets and charms and the written ghost stories during this time considered to be the earliest form of Chinese literature. Divination also became a significant part of Chinese religious beliefs during the Shang dynasty, with some individuals performing mystical and psychic abilities by telling another person’s future through oracle bones.

Religion in the Zhou Dynasty: 1046 – 256 BCE

During the Zhou Dynasty, various regions of China started to become more unified, turning into a single civilization. At the same time, religious ideas from different regions of the area interacted with each other and began to assimilate. Both commoners and the elite believed in gods, ghosts, ancestors, and omens, and they practiced divination, sacrifice, and exorcism. Zhou ancestors were believed to live in a celestial court presided over by the Zhou high god Tian. During the Zhou Dynasty, the Mandate of Heaven concept developed and this Chinese civilization also eventually gave way to the teachings of Confucius and Mo-tzu whose teachings emphasized virtue, humanity, the value of social relationships, and just leadership.

Qin Dynasty: 221 – 206 BCE

In the time of the Qin Dynasty, the emperor Shi Huangti became infamous for his suppression of religion and other philosophical perspectives. During his reign, legalism was the state philosophy of the Qin government and the citizens were subjected to harsh penalties for violating even minor laws. The emperor also banned any books which were not about his family line, his dynasty or Legalism. Though he suppressed his people’s religious beliefs, he was obsessed in conquering death by searching for the key to achieving immortality. However, he failed to succeed in accomplishing this feat, having died in 210 BCE while searching for immortality on tour through his kingdom.

Han Dynasty: 206 BCE – 220 CE

The Han Dynasty was the first dynasty in China to embrace Confucianism, which became the ideological foundation of all regimes from then on until the day Imperial China met its end. The reign of the Han Dynasty was a period of great prosperity, with the emperors of this period having supported and encouraged the development of art, science, technology, literature, and religion. The emperors were seen ruling under the Mandate of Heaven with the important responsibility of mediating between the gods and the people. Then, sometime during the 1st century CE, Buddhism reached China, probably through the travelers who took the Silk Road from northern India. By the 2nd century CE, a variety of other beliefs, practices, and disciplines arose, which eventually gave rise to alchemy, scientific experiments and the Taoist religion.

Six Dynasties Period: 220 – 589 CE

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The fall of the Han dynasty began a period of disunity referred to as the “Six Dynasties,” and during this time, Buddhism flourished and became a major religion in China ever since. While this period was almost in constant political upheaval, it is also considered to be an important time for religious development.

The uncertainty and brutality of the period influenced Buddhism in China and Buddhist monks had to meet the people's spiritual needs by developing rituals and practices of transcendence. And so, in the sixth century, new schools of Chinese Buddhism sought to adapt Buddhism to Chinese ways of thinking.

Sui Dynasty: 581 – 618 CE

After three and a half centuries of political fragmentation, China was reunified by the Sui dynasty in 581. The founder of this short-lived dynasty supported Buddhism, particularly the Tiantai school, and used this religion and philosophical movement as a unifying ideology shared by many of the citizens in both North and South.

Tang Dynasty: 618 – 906 CE

However, after four decades of rule, the Sui was overthrown in a series of rebellions and ended up getting replaced by the Tang dynasty – a time regarded by historians as a high point in Chinese civilization. The royal family of this dynasty officially supported Taoism because of them claimed blood relations to Lao-Tzu. However, Buddhism also enjoyed great favor and imperial patronage throughout the period. The T'ien-t'ai, Ch'an and Pure Land schools of Buddhism continued to rise in popularity, and many monasteries and temples were built during this time.

Sung Dynasty: 960 – 1279

After a short unstable period, the “Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms,” the Sung Dynasty rose to rule China. Sung intellectuals sought answers to philosophical and political inquiries in the Confucian Classics, and this renewed interest in the Confucian ideals arose alongside the decline of Buddhism. The Sung Neo-Confucian philosophers found a certain purity in the originality of the ancient classical texts and wrote commentaries about them. However, the rigidity of the state’s official creed and philosophy led to the inhibition of societal development in pre-modern China. While this resulted to several generations of political, social and spiritual stability, it also decelerated cultural and institutional advancement in the country up to the 19th century.

When the Mongols conquered North China and established the Yuan dynasty in the 13th century, they did not attempt to impose their religion – which consisted of a cult of Heaven as well as nature and shamanistic practices – on the Chinese people. And so, the existing three religions in China enjoyed comparative freedom under these foreign rulers. During the Yuan dynasty that a large number of Muslim people were brought in to help in the administration of China. During this time that Islam spread all over the empire, establishing major population bases in the western provinces of Yunnan and Gansu.

Ming Dynasty: 1368 – 1644

The populace’s strong feelings against the rule of foreigners led to the peasant revolt that forced the Yuan dynasty out of Chinese territory and the subsequent establishment of the Ming Dynasty in 1368. During this period, Taoism and Buddhism had become poorly-organized popular religions, which led to the rise of new blends of Confucian, Taoist and Buddhist elements so, this paved the way for the rise of many private academies in the 16th century, opening an avenue for widespread philosophical discussions and conflicts.

With the eventual collapse of the Ming empire, the Qing Dynasty came to power - an empire that was founded by the semi-nomadic Manchus. In public policy, the Manchus were strong supporters of Confucianism, but in their private lives, the Qing rulers were devoted to Tibetan Buddhism. Most religious developments during the Qing dynasty were continuations of Ming traditions, except Protestant Christianity as well as the Taiping movement – which is the most significant innovation in Qing religion. The teachings of the Taiping Tianguo or the Celestial Kingdom of Great Peace combined the motifs of Christianity, shamanism and popular sectarian beliefs. Then, in the 19th century, traditional Chinese religions were subjected to waves of persecution, and many religious and institutional religious temples ended up getting destroyed.

The Qing dynasty collapsed in 1911, and with the fall of imperial China, Chinese intellectuals became free to invest themselves in new ideas and political forms. They also were given a chance to avidly study and translate Western writings, including those that spoke of Marxism. The result of this Westernization and secularization left Confucianism and other Chinese traditions vulnerable from attacks which led to the destruction or occupation of thousands of temples. Nevertheless, while these new ideas heavily affected the larger cities, the majority of the Chinese people continued to practice popular religions and traditions as before.

People’s Republic of China: 1949 – present

After the Communist Party’s triumph in the Chinese Civil War under the leadership of Mao Zedong, the People’s Republic of China was proclaimed in 1949. In the early parts of its governance, the People’s Republic of China kept a hostile stance toward religion, which was considered to be emblematic of feudalism and foreign colonialism. Places of worship were then converted into non-religious buildings intended for secular use. Religious beliefs or practices were discouraged because and labeled as "backward" and "superstitious" by the government, later being completely condemned during the Cultural Revolution. Millions of innocent people were killed by the military or injured by fellow citizens poisoned by communist propaganda. It was only in the late 1970s that this attitude relaxed because the 1978 Constitution of the People’s Republic of China supposedly "guaranteed" religious freedom, with a number of restrictions, and as long as religious practices were not perceived to challenge the communist authority of the state.

Today, popular, or folk, religious practice in China has combined elements of the old ancestral rites of previous dynasties and is marked by a propensity for syncretism. For most people in China, there is no problem with combining different beliefs and religious practices, unlike some other cultures that condemn those who follow religious or philosophical movements that are different from their own. While religion in China has several millennia of tumultuous periods of decline and prosperity, what has remained constant is the Chinese people’s ability to select the religious practices and teachings that work best for them at a particular point in time. They have always exercised the freedom to choose which religion could help them in their journey toward a harmonious life.

Sources:

http://www.religionfacts.com/chinese-religion/history
http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/timelines/china_timeline.htm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_China#Proto-Chinese_and_Xia-Shang-Zhou_culture
http://www.ancient.eu/article/891/
http://www.patheos.com/Library/Chinese-Religion
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http://blogs.ssrc.org/tif/2013/10/01/what-is-religion-in-china-a-brief-history/

July 14, 2017

5 Most Feared Emperors in Chinese History

July 14, 2017/ Michael Chen

In ancient China, the emperor is believed to be the “son of heaven,” and he theoretically held supreme and absolute power to rule over the entire nation. Over its five thousand years of history, China has witnessed the rise and fall of dozens of dynasties and hundreds of emperors. A number of these emperors have gained renown for being feared by their enemies and even their own people, either for their intelligence and brilliant abilities as leaders or for their ineptitude as well as the madness and terror that reigned during their rule.

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1. Emperor Shi Huangdi of the Qin Dynasty

Emperor Shi Huangdi is not only the first emperor of the Qin dynasty, he also created the first unified Chinese empire in 221 BC. As the first emperor of Qin, his legacy is in the establishment of a strengthened and centralized government, which he accomplished partly by taking away the properties of his feudal lords. He was also a strong follower of Legalism – a philosophy that regards people as individuals who are inherently evil and undisciplined – and so, Qin Shi Huang was not tolerant of dissent of any kind. In fact, he had books about Daoist, Confucian philosophies and other non-Legalist books seized and set on fire in 213 B.C. and had about 460 non-Legalists buried alive a year after that.

While he is considered to be a talented politician and a military genius, Shi Huangdi held no sentimental feelings for his people and was only concerned with maintaining a strong and unified China at the time of his reign. In his campaign for the unification of China, he resorted to massacring, enslaving and exiling royal members of rival states. He was also not above executing his own high-ranking officials and generals.

During his reign, he ordered the construction of a great wall – which is considered to be a prequel to today's Great Wall of China – and a massive mausoleum which contained 6,000 life-size terra-cotta soldier statues. Many workers who built the wall died in the process, while those who built the mausoleum were killed to keep its secrets.

2. Emperor Yang Guang of the Sui Dynasty

Emperor Yang Guang was the second emperor of the Sui Dynasty and most agree he rose to power by cunningly framing his older brother Yong. So their father, Emperor Wen, appointed Yang Guang as crown prince instead. People believe Yang even killed his father to seize the throne and as the new emperor even took his father’s favorite concubines.

Yang went down in history as one of the worst most self-indulgent tyrants in ancient Chinese history. While there were some achievements during his rule, his abuse of power damaged the nation causing his people to suffer. For example, he imposed very heavy taxes to finish huge expensive construction projects like the Grand Canal, rebuilding the Great Wall, and redesigning the eastern capital of Luoyang. He also initiated a series of wars to subdue Goguryeo – one of the three old kingdoms that once ruled in the land of Korea – but each attempt ended in failure.

Emperor Yang also indulged in a very raunchy lifestyle with his concubines and embarked on extravagant tours of his empire. Eventually, people could no longer tolerate his rule or accept him as their emperor leading to one uprising after another. Then in 618, Emperor Yang hung himself in Jiangdu after the coup by his general, Yuwen Huaji.

3. Empress Wu Zetian of the Tang Dynasty

Empress Wu Zetian is recognized as the one true Empress in Chinese history and for one of its most talented rulers. Starting as a 14-year-old junior concubine, Wu rose through the ranks and eventually established herself as the Empress of China. People have varying views regarding Wu Zetian’s reign. To some, she was an autocrat, who ruthlessly disposed of people standing her way to gain and keep her power. To others, she was simply doing what she had to do as an ambitious individual and as the determined leader of an empire. She acted the same as male emperors during that time. Although many of her actions were demonized, experts also note how she effectively ruled China during one of its more peaceful and thriving periods.

Of course, her achievements as an effective leader do not discount the fact that she did ruthlessly eliminate her opponents by dismissing, exiling, or executing them. And in some cases, some she brought to their knees were her own family members. One particular victim to Wu Zetian’s maneuvers was Emperor Kao Tsung's wife, Empress Wang. She accused Empress Wang of murdering her newborn daughter and Wu eventually replaced Empress Wang becoming Empress Wu Zetian.

Wu Zetian’s brutal tactics and talent for governance as a ruling empress instilled fear in China’s neighboring nations, especially since the military leaders she handpicked successfully took control over large parts of the Korean peninsula.

4. Emperor Hongwu of the Ming Dynasty

The Emperor Hongwu was the founder and first emperor of the Ming Dynasty, which ruled all of China for almost three centuries. The emperor was born to a poor farming peasant family. He eventually rose through the ranks of a rebel army and emerged as the supreme leader of the rebels that sought to overthrow the Mongol or Yuan Dynasty. In January 1368, he proclaimed himself to be the emperor of the new Ming Dynasty with the primary objective of pushing the Mongols out of Chinese territory and restoring Han Chinese leadership in China. Soon after, people in many areas began rejecting everything Mongolian.

However, Emperor Hongwu held a grudge for the gentry class since his humble origins as a peasant farmer leading to a growing distrust of his ministers and generals. He demanded everyone obey his rules and, to consolidate his control over different government departments, he killed many "unqualified" officials in infamous purges. In one instance, he gave an order for extermination that massacred intellectuals, district officials, and nobility throughout the entire country. These repeated and increased in scale, assuring his absolute power as emperor.

As time went on, Emperor Hongwu grew suspicious of rebellions and coups from people mocking his poor background. Thus, he even executed his close advisers.

5. The Emperor Kangxi of the Qing Dynasty

The Emperor Kangxi reigned for 61 years, making him the longest-reigning emperor in Chinese history and the world. He is also considered to be among China’s greatest emperors, having brought long-term stability and wealth to the nation after years of war and chaos.

While he was a benevolent and wise leader that brought economic and cultural growth to the empire and its citizens, the Kangxi Emperor’s military tactics instilled fear in the hearts of his enemies and the empire’s neighboring nations. The leadership of the emperor successfully suppressed the Revolt of the Three Feudatories and forced the Taiwan Tungning Kingdom and Northern Mongol rebels to submit to Qing Empire rule. Emperor Kangxi faced Russian threats advancing from the north, and after a series of border conflicts along the Amur River region, the Qing Empire triumphed gaining control of the area. His leadership and genius also guaranteed the success of the empire’s invasion of Tibet.

The Kangxi Emperor also set strict military rules to be faithfully obeyed. According to this traditional military system, commanders and foot soldiers who returned from battle alone were put to death. This policy was strictly observed to motivate soldiers and commanders to fight together in battle fearlessly as one body.

The examples of Chinese emperors we discussed in this video were not just puppet leaders in their entire reign. These emperors from China were feared at some point - if not the entire duration – of their reign because they held an almost unlimited power that allowed them to freely make fate-changing decisions on the lives nobles, common people, and enemies. While the manner in which they exercised their power was not always for nor always lead to the betterment of the nation, they left a resounding impact through the Chinese empire and permanent mark in our global history.

Sources:

https://www.quora.com/Who-were-the-most-feared-emperors-in-Chinas-history
http://www.businessinsider.com/most-ruthless-leaders-of-all-time-2015-10/#qin-shi-huang-1
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qin_Shi_Huang
http://www.china.org.cn/top10/2011-09/02/content_23343011_4.htm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Yang_of_Sui
http://www.womeninworldhistory.com/heroine6.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hongwu_Emperor
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Hongwu_Emperor_of_China
http://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/china-history/emperor-kangxi.htm
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Kangxi_of_China
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor

June 14, 2017

World’s Oldest Book of Wisdom Predicts The Future

June 14, 2017/ Michael Chen

Divination is the reading of signs or symbols with the intention of receiving guidance and wisdom about current situations and future events. From ancient and medieval worlds up to our modern era, many different methods of divination have been used and are still being used today, which include but are not limited to: the observation of animal behavior, the movement of the stars and the planets, the casting of lots, and utterances from supposed oracles. In the past, these methods were understood to be some of the ways of communicating with the spiritual world or unleashing unseen powers. But from a modern psychological standpoint, divination now represents one of humans’ subtle means of accessing the wisdom of the unconscious mind.

One ancient system of divination, which originated in China and has endured until now even though thousands of years have already passed, is steeped in myth and legend, and possesses undeniable spiritual, philosophical and historical value. This is known as the I Ching or the Book of Changes, and it is unquestionably one of the oldest and most important books in the world’s literature.

Brief Background:

The I Ching, or the Book of Changes, is an ancient Chinese divination text and is also the oldest of the Chinese classics. The text possesses a history of more than two and a half millennia of commentary and interpretation, making it an influential text throughout the world for the inspiration it serves in religion, art, literature, psychoanalysis and even business.

Originally, the I Ching was a divination manual in the Western Zhou period, around 1000 to 750 BC. Sometime between 500 and 200 BC, which was over the course of the Warring States period and the early imperial period, it was transformed into a cosmological text that came with a series of philosophical commentaries known as the “Ten Wings.” After it became a part of the Five Classics in the 2nd century BC, the I Ching established itself as not only the basis of divination practice for centuries across the Far East, but also the subject of scholarly commentary and an influential tool in the Western understanding of Eastern thought.

The interpretation of the readings found in the Book of Changes has sparked intense debate for centuries. Nevertheless, many have used the book symbolically to provide guidance for moral decision making, which is why it is not surprising that both of the two branches of Chinese philosophy, Confucianism and Taoism, share common roots through this ancient text. Many western figures – like psychologist Carl Gustav Jung, physicist Wolfgang Pauli, and writer Hermann Hesse - have recognized the Book of Changes as an intelligent, profound and sophisticated system of divination, which is most likely why it has been in continuous use up to now in different parts of the world.

Philosophy of the I Ching:

Change is the central idea behind the I Ching. Much like the way the night gradually and without division follows after day, and one season evolves into another, nothing in life and in the universe is fixed or ever unchanging. Everything is not split into the timeframes of the past, the present or the future. All things in the universe are interlinked and constantly moving and changing. We are all in a state of flux and transition. And the path to understanding and embracing change involves acknowledging and comprehending the relationship between the energetic polarities of Yin and Yang.

Yin and Yang, while seemingly opposing energies are in fact complementary. Yin corresponds to receptive, mutable and contracting form, while Yang corresponds to active, creative and expansive force. The balance between these two energies is ever changing and transforming, which is why it is signified by a wavy, center line (or Wu Wei Line) in the well-known Yin-Yang symbol – also known as Tai Chi or The Great Ultimate.

In Taoist thinking, the concept of energetic balance between Yin and Yang and flow have a deep and meaningful relationship in people’s lives and that of the universe as a whole. And because everything in the universe is generated from the Yin-Yang polarity and the flow between the two opposing yet complementary energies, the philosophy of the I Ching welcomes change, movement, transformation, momentum and regeneration.

The I Ching is all about change – exploring and defining the changes you experience even if they may be beyond your current understanding, and revealing all the possibilities for future change, action as well as inaction.

Basic Structure of the I Ching as a Divination System:

In the Book of Changes, Yang and Yin are represented by unbroken and broken lines. In utilizing the I Ching as a tool for divination, these lines are used to create “hexagrams” – figures which are made up of six lines. Each inquiry to the oracle will require a hexagram reading and possibly additional line readings as well.

A hexagram is made up of two trigrams, and each trigram is made up of three lines. Each line is either broken or solid, corresponding to the negative force Yin and the positive force Yang. There are eight possible trigrams: Ch’ien for the Cosmos, Chen for Thunder, K’an for Water, Ken for Mountain, K’un for Earth, Sun for Wind or Wood, Li for Fire, and Tui for Lake. These eight trigrams were conceived as symbols of all that happens in both heaven and on earth. At the same time, they were all held to be in a state of continual transition, with one trigram changing into another, just as transitions from one phenomenon to another are continuously occurring in the physical world.

There are sixty-four different hexagrams, and each hexagram has six changing lines, and its presence affect the hexagram’s meaning. These changing lines in the primary hexagram also point to the creation of a second, transformed hexagram, which is also included in the readings and interpretation when responding to a person’s consult over a situation or answering a question.

All in all, there are 4,096 possible core readings. With the inclusion of symbols, nuclear trigrams, as well as other factors, the interpretation possibilities provided by the Book of Changes are pushed into the tens of millions.

Consulting the I Ching:

The I Ching is made up of 64 chapters, and each of them relate to a corresponding hexagram which presents a particular message. In consulting the I Ching, the first step to do is to formulate a question, followed by the creation of a hexagram. This is typically done through the process of throwing coins, but several other ways have also been utilized in consulting the ancient text. One traditional method uses grains of rice, while another uses yarrow sticks. But for our purpose of explaining the process of consulting the I Ching, we will be using the method of throwing coins as example.

Before casting the coins down, those who seek to consult the Book of Changes for divine guidance must first meditate on the question they want to ask, which are usually related to the issue or situation they are currently facing. With a question in mind, the three coins are shaken in a cupped hand before they are thrown down. And in throwing the coins, the intention is to create a hexagram. As previously mentioned, each hexagram is built up from a series of six lines, and these lines are either broken or unbroken, reflecting the energetic qualities of the situation at hand.

A straight line ‘_______’ represents Yang energy or young Yang, while a broken line ‘____ ____’ represents Yin energy or young Yin. There is also another energetic quality which reflects the dynamism of the Yin or Yang energy of any situation; and so, they may be at the point of transformation, either from Yin to Yang or vice versa. These lines are called ‘moving’ or ‘changing’ lines and they can either be Yin moving or changing – also referred to as old Yin - or Yang moving or changing – which is also known as old Yang. The unique combination of these four energetic qualities and the possibilities over the six lines of a hexagram represent the energy of the entire situation an individual is consulting the Book of Changes about.

In the coin method, each time three coins are thrown at the same time translates to an energetic line. And so, throwing the coins six times create the six lines that become the whole hexagram. The two distinguishable sides of the coins are assigned numerical values: “heads” is given the value of 3, while “tails” has the value of 2. By throwing three coins at the same time, their combined value will fall between 6 and 9. These values can then be translated to their energetic lines. 6 corresponds to the old Yin; 7 is the young Yang; 8 is the young Yin; and 9 is the old Yang.

The value and the type of energetic line of the first coin throw corresponds to the first or the bottom line of the hexagram, while the result of the second throw corresponds to the second line from the bottom line of the hexagram, and so on. Repeating the coin throw six times helps formulate the values of the lines of the hexagram from the bottom up. The bottom three lines are referred to as the lower trigram, while the top three lines are the upper trigram. Together, a pair of trigrams make up the whole hexagram.

Once the trigrams have been written down, the grid table of the Book of Changes is consulted to identify the name and number of the hexagram that was formulated based on the results of the coin throws. This is the primary hexagram. Each hexagram chapter in the I Ching is divided into two sections. The main opening text provides an overview of the message the hexagram pertains to, but there are also a series of six supplementary passages, each relating to one of the six lines of the hexagram. If moving or changing lines are present within the hexagram, additional line passages that these changing lines correspond to should also be read for further guidance and insight.

Having moving or changing lines in a hexagram may mean that the question asked or the situation consulted about is in an extreme state of flux, which indicates that it is unbalanced or due for immediate change. And so, in addition to reading the supplementary line passages within the primary hexagram chapter, these moving or changing lines can also be allowed to change. This means that every old Yin becomes a young Yang; while every old Yang becomes a young Yin. And with this transition, a second extension or relating hexagram is created.

These two hexagrams – specifically the main text and relevant line passages of the primary hexagram, and the main body text of the extension hexagram – are read together to disclose the full meaning of the spiritual and moral guidance being offered by the Book of Changes for a specific consult or question.

The I Ching represents an entire ancient philosophy that should be treated with great respect and admiration. It symbolizes the cyclical interconnectedness of the Universe and it serves as a moral guide to a personal path of balance and harmony. The wisdom this book contains has the potential to stimulate your sensitivity, creativity and resourcefulness, even when you are experiencing the most challenging and demanding periods of your life, during which those vital personal qualities are not as easy to unleash from within.

Most importantly, the I Ching does not give you specific and straight-to-the point ‘answers’ you might expect to get. Instead, it empowers you and encourages you to look within for the answer that you seek. Its mysticism as a divination system is, paradoxically, founded on its emphasis on the phenomenal nature of human beings.

But apart from its spiritual value and usefulness as a tool for divination, the book also offers a wealth of beautiful poetry and Chinese philosophy that stretches back 5000 years into the origins of ancient Chinese customs and values. And perhaps this is the more widely-embraced reason why the I Ching should be considered a global treasure.